Consumption and Production of Culture The WritePass Journal

Consumption and Production of Culture Introduction Consumption and Production of Culture IntroductionReferencesRelated Introduction The centre for Contemporary cultural studies (CCCS) has been criticised heavily about how it talks about youth subcultures. I will show how youth subcultures have been perceived by theorists and then show why it has been criticised through those theorists. Each subculture joined together form the whole community and brings their individual uniqueness into it. A person’s subculture is also known as their parent subculture, which is the culture they belong to through what style they associate with. Cohen suggests that working class youth subcultures, â€Å"live out a kind of symbolic or magical occupationtheir parents had once called their own†. He also puts the idea across that the subculture a youth is in is a â€Å"compromise†. Each subculture is the making of what youth’s parents subcultures were. They take two other subcultures for example â€Å"mods† and â€Å"rockers† and a new subculture can be formed. As this new subculture would take the same beliefs and interests as the other two so the youth could still be associated from that of the origins of what their parent’s subcultures were. The dominant culture is the general consensus, in which most people within a community accept the subculture and adopt the norms and values within. All these ideas are taken from Gelder, 2005. Subcultures can be taken as a form of resistance as some can be used as an act of rebellion. I believe that some youths want to act and dress differently to what their parents want them to do, so they do the complete opposite. A subculture can eventually be incorporated into mainstream, everyday life once it is known and accepted by the dominant culture and is then taken into everyday life. â€Å" Eventually, the mods, the punks, the glitter rockers can be incorporated, brought back into line, located on the preferred ‘map of problematic social reality’ ( Geertz 1964) at the point where boys in lipstick are ‘just kids dressing up’, where girls in rubber dresses are ‘daughters just like yours’† (Hebdige).   This shows that even though when it starts out, it might be seen as not part of the norm, but it can eventually be incorporated into the norm and is eventually accepted by the society. Hebdige (1988) ideas are along the same line as Marxists ideas. They have the ideas that each subculture takes an item or object and can change the meaning of it, by how they make it look. He looks at the meaning of the styles each subculture wears.   To find out the meaning of the British youth subcultures before the war he used semiotics to understand them. The meanings of the signs were interpreted using this method. Each word or object within a culture has a specific meaning in it. Hebdige was able to know what each object meant to each individual group of people. Hebdige believes a subculture in two forms can take a process of recuperation. One being that of the signs in which are involved in the subculture and making them into objects which are mass produced and can help make the subculture more popular. Also there is the ideological form which any deviant behaviour is labelled and redefined by the dominant groups. Within a subculture Hebdige believes there must be two questions asked, which must be answered once the meaning of style is known better. One being â€Å"how does a subculture make sense of its members?† and the next being â€Å"how is it made to signify disorder?† Both of these questions are answered to show how a subculture can be communicated between its self and the media. Material goods can be important to certain groups as they are symbolic to their own subcultures. They have specific meanings for different items and they are sentimental for them. Within a subculture it is not just the material goods associated with it that make it, it is also the language that specific group uses. Between some subcultures there can be different languages emerging between them. Also different words can mean different things for each subculture. When subcultures merge together whatever the meanings of their symbols merge together and create new meanings and build on what was there before. Different subcultures can be over emphasised by the media. The media can expose them and bring them into the public eye more. They can bring across the idea on what a subculture is; can speak about them positively or negatively. They can influence everyone else in the community just by what they think. The media though mostly always tend to bring things across negatively, which I think is shocking as I believe everyone has a right to what they think is right. Some subcultures are not always put across as friendly groups. Some are put across negatively and that is the only side that is shown of them. Soccer hooligans are put across as being bad and sometimes associated with being animals. I think these sorts of groups do one thing bad and they always get seen negatively. No one ever looks for the positives within them. Tony Jefferson (1976) also looked into the area of youth subculture. He mainly looks into Teddy boys or Teds, which were associated with attempting to recreate the working class community.   They joined together to fight for their own territory and built a sense of loyalty between each other. Jefferson viewed what was happening as a sense of them buying their own status. They started wearing items which were worn by classes higher up, in the hope that with them now wearing them, they get seen as a higher status. From this it looks like they could not accept who they had become due to their area being under threat and felt they had to do whatever they could to buy their status back. This all happened because their own territory had become under threat from urban planners. Each subculture tends to be very short lived and will only be around for as long as it stays in fashion, which is until the next new thing, which happens all the time. So in terms of political potential, it is very low as they do not stick around long enough to make a big enough impact to get power generated. Though a subculture’s profile is easily lifted by the help of the media, this helps get a particular culture started and make a name for them. Particularly in the 50s, the time of punks, rockers, the high profile subcultures, the Government tried to get subcultures thrown away, by strongly saying the trade unions would be taken away. Instead they wanted the nuclear family promoted and did not want anyone having their own uniqueness. The problem with each subculture is that production companies have to cater for each individual style. They produce whatever is in fashion and change it whenever the subculture changes. Each subculture is always changing and building on what it already has. Some subcultures even end up merging to form a new culture, which again has its own uniqueness about it. As said before, the CCCS is criticised, one is that they tend to go towards ‘rigidly vertical models’ (Stahl 2004). They often don’t take into account factors like age, race and gender. Also class universally is used singularly to explain the youth subcultures. Hebdige does use working class to mainly describe the subcultures in his reports. He also uses the influences of race to observe how some British subcultures, such as punks, have emerged over the years. Another area which is criticised is that of the fact in which the male writers work, such as Willis and Hebdige, are invisible of girls.   Angela McRobbie has written about the fact they ignore females in their explanation of youth subcultures. The male writer’s always focus mainly on the males within a subculture. The females just get ignored and don’t have any influence on the rising of how they see a subculture. Angela McRobbie and Jenny Garber focus on female youths within a subculture. They focus on females because all the other theorists just focus on the male population. From that though you cannot get a full representation of what a subculture is, as it does not look at the whole population. McRobbie looks at the reasons why they do not look at females. That they might be viewed as separate and not be seen as much. They might have a subculture which is not seen by the community and the media. Although both of them did think that girls did play less of a part in a subculture, but believed this was down to the fact that during this time it was mainly male dominance and the girls did not have a big role at this time. They believe that structurally those young girls are different to young boys. That is why they believe that hidden somewhere is subcultures for those females. I believe that the male subcultures were just highlighted as it was male theorists conducting it and they mainly looke d between the male dominance sides. There were probably female subcultures just as big, but they were not as influential or highlighted by the media as much. The media did not pick them up. This is a big downfall in the area of subcultures, as it does not show the big picture. The theories that are put across from the CCCS and Hebdige are not always on the same levels as Marxists. They tend not to agree with them and disregard them. They believe they don’t take into account of how important the economic base is and the fact it shapes our culture. Another problem with Hebdige’s work was there was no evidence that suggests that what he puts forward is actually how the people within those subcultures interpret it themselves. He doesn’t have any research which backs up his idea, which means it’s only what he believes. The people within those subcultures could interpret those objects completely differently. He didn’t talk to the members within to get their views; he could have conducted an interview. This though shows that his view lacks validity and other sociologists could respond to it as being subjective. Andy Bennett and Keith Kahn-Harris (2004) see the CCCS as failing to show that subcultures are class based. They show that the CCCS only look at subcultures as being working class only and that there are not different classes in between. Other sociologists to Hebdige believe that the whole idea of consumerism is not built up through class, but rather the taste of different people. They believe that through people having different views on things they can see what is in style and respond accurately. This efficiently took away the boundaries between classes and brought different groups together. Throughout the CCCS there is not much highlighted about the ethics or locality within subcultures. They believed that throughout the UK a subculture was the same where ever it was, but other researchers have discovered that there are some which are just based locally. There is not a lot said about any of the youths which do not follow into a subculture. Even though these youths make up most of them they do not get talked about. The CCCS does not mention anywhere a reason for why one youth follows into a subculture, but another one does not, even though they are from the same working class background. Throughout pieces written on subcultures, there tends to be an over emphasis on resistance. They tend to talk about how each subculture is an act of resistance over something rather than being someone’s way of life and not wanting to get back at others. Some subcultures are seen as if they are resisting against something they do not want to do. They act as if they are opposing against what people believe to be the right way of life and what is seen as the norm. The CCCS intently put the idea across that each subculture is only about being the opposite to mainstream. Also suggest that there is only one type of norm and if you’re not like that then you are part of an oppositional subculture. They do not put across that there could be several mainstream as not everyone likes the same thing. They do not know what a subculture is actually about they have only put out theories. For all they know a subculture could just be about having good fun. The theorists that criticise the CCCS and Hebdige the most is the Postmodernists. They claim that class does not play a big part in subcultures, but they also say that there might not even be subcultures. They think that they do not exist as they cannot be defined very well. They do not think that youth culture can really be described through the subculture concept. Even though there is many negative, there is positives about subcultures. Subcultures are very influential on showing the differences between everyone in society. If you did not have those differences between subcultures, everyone would be the exact same, no one would have their own ideas and uniqueness about them. In society now, it is still visible that subcultures still exist. You can see different subcultures within society and everyone belongs to their own group. Subcultures are probably more visible now than before, but the difference is every subculture is accepted widely as existing, though there is some difference between subcultures. Some do not like each other and tend not to get along. As shown the CCCS has been criticised a lot. There is no firm research evidence to confirm what these theorists say. Even though there are negatives associated with the CCCS, you can see where some of the ideas about subcultures have come from and how they show how subcultures have grown and can influence culture as a whole. Though there are the positives, I agree with that of McRobbie as when all the other theorists were talking about subcultures, they should have incorporated what they were saying towards females as that would show the whole society. References Hebdige, D. 1976. Subculture: The meaning of Style. In: Haralambos and Holburn. Subculture and style. Hammersmith, Collins Education. pp 772. Hebdige, D. 1988. Subculture: The meaning of Style, Routledge, London. Hebdige, D. 1979. Subculture: The meaning of Style. In Gelder, K. Ed. The subcultures reader. 2nd ed., pp 121-131. Jefferson, T. 1976. Youth Subculture. In Haralambos and Holburn. Teddy Boys. Hammersmith, Collins Education. pp 772. McRobbie, A. And   Garber, J. 1978. Gender and youth subcultures. In Haralambos and Holburn. The neglect of gender? Hammersmith, Collins Education. pp 774. McRobbie, A. 1977. Girls and Subcultures. [online] available from: gold.ac.uk/media-communications/staff/mcrobbie/   [accessed on: 1st May 2011]

FREE-MARKET APPROACH AND REGULATORY APPROACH TO STANDARD SETTING IN Assignment

FREE-MARKET APPROACH AND REGULATORY APPROACH TO STANDARD SETTING IN ACCOUNTING - Assignment Example The researcher analyzed the free market approach to standard setting and provided a case study analysis to this approach. Within the free-market approach, the study revealed some theories including the positive accounting theory and agency theory, which recommends that entities should have incentives to make publicly accounting information munificently. The study also examined the regulatory approach, which aims to protect the interests of the public in the marketplace. The study further examined some of the frameworks within the regulatory approaches including the public interest theory and capture theory. Lastly, the researcher provided the case studies for both free-market and regulatory approaches in relation to standard setting in accounting. Lastly, the conclusion was provided that summed up everything that was discussed under the research topic. Assessment of the Free-Market Approach and Regulatory Approach to Standard Setting In Accounting Introduction The increased competiti ve which result due to increased technology contributing to a global village have encouraged financial analysts, regulators and lobbying groups to take significant interest in the market system. The accounting standards has created an ongoing debate as to whether accountants should regulate or set accounting standards or not. ... The policymakers believe that the government should regulate standards in order to protect investors against market risks. However, there exist non-regulatory approaches known as the free-market approaches, which determine the accounting information and regulation in order to meet the interest of the public. Thus, the study attempts to examine varied approaches to standard setting in accounting including the free market approach, regulator, as well, as illustrates the applications for such approaches. Literature Review Varied literatures have attempted to provide systematic and clear understandings of accounting standard setting in regard to financial accounting standard setting. There is an ongoing debate that market should work freely, but the government should intervene and create regulatory standards to protect investors from encountering risk in the market. Therefore, this part offers an analysis on the way the previous scholars have attempted to argue about by developing varied approaches to standard setting in accounting including the free market and regulatory approaches. However, there have been a considerable debate over the accounting standards and some issues have been raised including the politicization of accounting standard setting for the concerned parties involved (Horngren 2006, 51). The debate on the advantages and disadvantages of accounting regulation standards settings is a realism of accounting setting. Thus, Britton and Waterston (2006, p.71) proposed varied limitations and benefits of accounting standard settings whether regulatory or non-regulatory, hence these can be based on the restructuring the accounting standard setting process. The literature offers critical assessment of varied approaches by

Dinler v. City of New York, 607 F.3d. 923 (2d. Cir. 2010) Case Study

Dinler v. City of New York, 607 F.3d. 923 (2d. Cir. 2010) - Case Study Example Thus, it was ordered that reports by covert operatives are of confidential nature and, therefore, cannot be revealed to the defendants on the grounds of safeguarding public interest. The court further added that the plaintiffs did not have sufficient reasons to warrant the production of the police reports, which are confidential in nature. Thus, the writ was granted and the orders of the lower court were vacated. The case was previously heard by the court for the Southern District of New York where the plaintiffs had petitioned and during the trials they requested for the production of undercover police reports. The court directed the city to produce the documents for verification by plaintiffs during the trial. The plaintiffs alleged that the mass arrest of the demonstrators constituted the violation of their â€Å"state and federal constitutional rights† (United States District Court Southern District of New York, 2012, p.1). During the trial, they requested the production of police reports by covert operatives and the city filed writ for mandamus on the grounds that such documents cannot be divulged before the public. However, the district court ordered that the documents be produced and as an alternative suggested that it be done â€Å"attorney’s eyes only basis† (Adams, n.d., p.1). In this scenario, the city had to resort to seeking a writ for mandamus as producing the documents for the scrutiny of the attorney would also have compromised the confidentiality of the reports. The Court of Appeal granted the writ on the grounds that the petition of the city qualifies for a mandamus as it raised â€Å"novel and significant† questions of law (p.1). The court also agreed to the fact that police reports are entitled for â€Å"law enforcement privilege† and thus the these are not to be divulged to either the plaintiff or their attorneys (p.1). The main

The prices of college Essay Example for Free

The prices of college Essay The prices of college tuition have increased yearly, and not much of an effort is put forth to try to lower the costs. For example, colleges in the state of Pennsylvania have a high tuition. Moravian College’s tuition is about $32,931, and after receipt of grants and scholarships for one year it will be $22,900. East Stroudsburg University’s tuition is about $6,240, and after receipt of grants and scholarships for one year it will be $12,500. I can barely afford Community College, and I know for a fact I wouldn’t be able to afford any of these colleges or universities either. In this essay, I will explain through facts and opinions, why the cost of college tuition should be lowered. Many people decide to start off first in Community Colleges after they leave high school because it’s cheaper. Even though, some may have the money to move on to the college or university that they dreamed about attending, or to the exact college or university that acquire the major they want to complete. Some don’t start college after high school because they’re working on saving up enough money to attend one. Through these different experiences, I’ve realized why the cost of college tuition should be lowered. By lowering the prices of college tuition, many people can actually go to a certain college or university that contains the major they want. Others can keep up with their studies and actually have a bright future ahead of them. Most people can even study and work hard to be able to have a wealthy job and not even have to worry about this problem with costly colleges. Personally, I am going through issues with my college tuition. I try to pay off my college tuition with the help of my seasonal job at Dorney Park, and my parents, and the financial aid I received as well. My main problem is that even with all the help I get, I still end up paying a big amount of money for my college tuition at Northampton Community College. According to a website I recently found, it showed what the total annual cost of the school. The website also says that the total annual cost is without grants and scholarship. Paying off the cost can be hard for most people, especially some who just got out of college and it’s hard Moravian’s total annual cost comes out to be in $44,069, and that is also without adding any grants, loans, or scholarships. Also, East Stroudsburg’s total annual cost comes out to be in $15,299, and again that is without adding any grants, loans, or scholarships. Even in where I am at, Northampton Community College, there total annual cost comes out to be in $14,684, but I don’t commute at home so it’s a little less then that price, still there is barely a difference. These prices of college tuitions have been skyrocketing, and will keep going higher if no change is made. In conclusion, the cost of college tuitions has to go down, because many people in the world today are becoming poor, or are in financial debt, or in the recession because of these outlandish prices. Also, a big problem is the dreams of many people around the world to move on in life, and go forth to achieve goals are being traumatically ruined because of the prices of college tuition. I am one to say, college is getting way to pricy, and if these prices keep going up more, then my dreams would go down more of having the job I always wanted, having enough money to support my family and children in the future, and about even having a future at all. The government already takes enough money from every individual through taxes, we need a financial change, we need college to be cheaper, and we need it now! http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/08/30/smartest-students-community-colleges/ http://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/my-money/2012/05/30/5-reasons-community-colleges-make-sense-right-now

What Is Truth? Essay examples -- Definition Philosophical Philosophy E

What is Truth? Truth exists and is an absolute. Contrary to the mush-minded meanderings of modern educators, truth is not relative. If my truth differs from your truth that can only be because either one or both of us is unaware of the truth and has called something true which is not. Truth must have not the slightest touch of maybe to it. Maybe is dishonesty to truth and if it touches truth, then truth becomes maybe. Truth is more and beyond that which is true. Truth is a concept in philosophy that treats the meaning of true and the criteria by which we judge the truth or falsity in written and spoken statements. For thousands of years, Philosophers have attempted to answer the question â€Å"What is Truth?†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Truth is the quality of being true, and anything that is true is a truth, the concept of truth is uncommonly complex and variable. Thoughts, ideas, beliefs, and opinions are said to be true or false. An idea makes a truth claim and is true when the character of what is thought about upholds its claim. Forms of words or statements are also said to be true or false. This can be explained by saying a set of words is true when it expresses a true thought. â€Å"Truth† should be replaced by the â€Å"facts†, â€Å"reality† or the â€Å"way things are.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Truth is often imagined as consisting in a speaker’s honesty with respect to what he believes. Occasionally truth is rehashed, as in the doctrines of the German philosopher Gottlob Frege. Mohandas Gandhi spoke of â€Å"The Absolute Truth, the Eternal Principle, that is God† and said, â€Å" I worship God as Truth only.† Jesus said, â€Å" I am the Way, and the Truth, and the Life.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  God is truth and the essence of it. All of his ways are truth and all truth stands or falls as it is measured against Him. If we love truth and seek after it, we cannot help but run into the outstretched arms of God. He wants us to know the truth, which is to know him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  God places the truth before us and gives us complete freedom to choose how to respond to the truth. If we turn to God and ask him to instruct us in the truth and to lead us to salvation, we will surely receive that which we ask because our prayer will be in line with God’s desire for us. The word truth is mentioned in the bible 235 times.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Philosopher’s proposed four main theories to answer the â€Å"What is Truth?† question. They are correspondence, pragmatic,... ...he environment, nature, ethnical duties and ideas, or the relation to the divine.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It has been doubted whether knowledge, or known truth, is humanly attainable. The truth is often disagreeable, because it fails to support prejudice or myth. The pursuit of truth tends to be suppressed as a dangerously revolutionary force.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some philosophers reject the question â€Å"What is truth?† with the observation that attaching the claim â€Å"it is true that† to a sentence adds no meaning. The use of the word true is essential when making a general claim about everything, nothing, or something, as in the statement â€Å"most of what he says is true.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Truth is a very simple and handy concept. It is correspondence of a pictorial or symbolic representation to the thing being represented. In the case of a symbolic representation, the correspondence may be massively complicated, but it is nonetheless similar in kind to a simple pictorial representation. Works Cited â€Å"Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 98† on disk. 1993-1997 â€Å"Encyclopedia Americana†, 1986 by Grolier Incorporated â€Å"Philosophy: History and Problems. Samuel Enoch Stumpf, Fifth Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1994

Transcendentalism was a cult or so to say, a rejection of God Essay

Transcendentalism was a spiritual, philosophical, literary movement that took place in the Boston area between the 1830s and late 1840s (Buchanan 1). The main idea was that the â€Å"soul of the individual is identical to the soul of the world and that it contains what the world contains,† and that the mind can apprehend absolute spiritual truths directly without having to detour through authorities and senses. This idea revolved around idealism, which is defined as â€Å"any theory positing the primacy of spirit, mind, or language over matter† (Campbell 2-3). Some have stated that Transcendentalism was a cult or so to say, a rejection of God. In reality, the movement was a preference to explain an individual and the world in terms of this individual. The individual was considered to be the spiritual center of the universe. Though not a cult, transcendentalism has ties to major religions. From Puritanism we get morality and the doctrine of divine light. From the Quakers, comes the inner light. Then, with Unitarianism there is the belief of the individual, the true source of the moral light (Reuben 2). Lockean philosophy, which involves all objects of the understanding described to be ideas, and ideas are spoken of as being in the mind, as well as Calvinist beliefs were used to underwrite the belief in Christianity and to focus on science and cognizance (Bickman 2). Ralph Waldo Emerson explains the name and the idea behind the movement with his profound statement, â€Å"It is well known to most of my audience, that the Idealism of the present day acquired the name of Transcendental, from the use of that term by Immanuel Kant, of Konigsberg, who replied to the skeptical philosophy of Locke, which insisted that there was nothing in the intellect which was not previously in the experience of the senses, by showing that there was a very important class of ideas, or imperative forms, which did not come by experience but through which experience was acquired: that these were intuitions of the mind itself; and he denominated them the Transcendental forms. â€Å" With the Unitarian church, came the optimistic and rationalistic ideas which lead to Transcendentalism. William Ellery Channing, Andrews Norton, and Edward Everett were ministers and philosophers of this time who were tied with the church. They pretty much made the transcendentalists who they were (Bickman 2). Those who agreed with the ideas of the church and the ideas of Emerson joined a club named, The Transcendental Club. Emerson was the head of it, and Hedge, Francis, Clarke, and Alcott would meet at George Ripley’s house to form this organization. The organization was formed to exchange the thought of new ideas in philosophy, theology, and literature, but the members never decided to come up with a new form of religion (â€Å"Transcendentalism† 333). The taken philosophical meaning of this organization was that the â€Å"man’s practical and imaginative faculties play a part in his apprehension of the truth. † In the art and literature world was a â€Å"creation of works filled with the new passion for nature and common humanity and incarnating a fresh sense of the wonder, promise, and romance of life† (327). Emerson was an educated man who studied at Harvard. He was a minister during the time of the Transcendental Club, and when his wife died, he decided to resign since he could not participate in communion. Emerson then decided to write poetic prose, essays with recurring themes (â€Å"Emerson† 1). He believed that â€Å"reason is the highest faculty of the soul? what we mean by the soul itself; it never reasons, never proves, it simply perceives; it is wisdom† (Campbell 4). With the ideas of oversoul, reason, wisdom, and perception, Emerson wrote what would be the most important essay in his life, Nature (Bickman 4). The focus of the essay was to describe the nature of life and how we are supposed to live. The essay helps to distinguish between macrocosm and microcosm, the difference in the world outside of an individual and that of the world inside (Campbell 4). The introduction expresses how a creature is to interact with God, how nature has no secrets, and how nature is divided between body and soul. After the introduction, Emerson divides the essay into sections titled as â€Å"Nature†, â€Å"Commodity†, â€Å"Beauty†, â€Å"Language†, â€Å"Discipline†, â€Å"Idealism†, â€Å"Spirit†, and â€Å"Prospects†. Throughout these chapters come this Transcendental / Romantic idea. There are no secrets in this form of intervention. Reality is split into nature and the soul (Steinhart 1). By going outside and looking at the stars, you can have a direct relation with nature, but your mind must be open. Emerson mentions, â€Å"I become a transparent eye-ball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or particle of God. † He explains how open minded a person can be, and how they can connect with the oversoul through this process (2). Nature is only here to serve for our human needs, so it needs to be used wisely (3). Nature is also strict truth without ambiguity, and it can be perceived as an incarnation of God (8, 11). Emerson and other Transcendentalists believe that humans have the mental power and capacity to power over our own bodies (11). In other words, we control what goes on in our life by using our mind. And towards the end of the essay, comes the idea that when we are saved and restored, in the end we as beings will have the powers equal to those of God (13). Emerson was not the only Transcendental writer. Others included Margaret Fuller, Theodore Parker, Jones Very, Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, and the original Dr. William Ellery Channing. The closest known to Emerson would have to be Henry David Thoreau. Thoreau also grew up in Massachusetts and while in college studied Emerson’s Nature (â€Å"Great? † 1-2). The essay influenced Thoreau to keep a journal of his philosophies. The most influential journal published would be Walden (2). Walden is an autobiography / pastoral / extended familiar essay / literary excursion that pulls the reader into a mythic time that can be related to the present (6). Overall, the journal explains to the reader why the spiritual discipline is necessary for coming into the presence and possession of the sacred world (7). Transcendentalism was the living force that seemed to be extinguished as quickly as the flame started. Perry Miller, a professor at Harvard, says â€Å"Parker killed himself with overwork, and Thoreau expanded himself; Emerson dissolved into aphasia, Ripley subsided into disillusion, Hedge became a Harvard professor? Brownsun became a catholic, as did Sophia Ripley, and Elizabeth Peabody became a ? character’. † In the end, Emerson and Thoreau were easily the most well known out of the Transcendentalists. Emerson’s essays and Thoreau’s Walden seemed to be more popular than the rest of the group (Bickman 4). The thoughts of the Transcendentalists still live on, but as for the writing, it has pretty much ended. Personally, I highly recommend that everyone should read at least one piece from the Transcendentalism period. The reading is very influential and gets the reader thinking about life and how things fall together. The readings also change the reader’s perception of religion and could bring on an interest in theology. From reading Nature and Walden myself, I became hooked on the thought of the oversoul and the internal light within us. The stories impacted my spiritual being, as well as my mind. The philosophies of Transcendentalists also make the reader wonder where the thoughts come from and how they derive these thoughts. In all, it is in a way needed that everyone reads some of the Transcendentalists work, just for a change in thought. Works Cited Bickman, Martin. â€Å"An Overview of American Transcendentalism. † Internet. Available: http://www. vcu. edu/engwed/transcendentalism/ideas/definition. html 6 Apr 2004. Campbell, Donna M. â€Å"American Transcendentalism. † Literary Moments. Internet. Available: http://www. gonzaga. edu/faculty/campbell/enl311/amtrans. html 6 Apr 2004. â€Å"Ralph Waldo Emerson. † Internet. Available: http://www. poets. org/poets. cfm? prmID=205 19 Apr 2004. Great Thinkers of the World. HarperCollins Publishers, 1999. 372. Reuben, Paul P. â€Å"Chapter 4: Early Nineteenth Century ? American Transcendentalism: A Brief Introduction. † PAL: Perspectives in American Literature ? A Research and Reference Guide. Internet. Available: http://www. csustan. edu/english/reuben/pal/chap4/4intro. html 6 Apr 2004. Steinhart, Eric. â€Å"Commentary on Ralph Waldo Emerson’s Nature. † Internet. Available: http://www. wpunj. edu/cohssi/philosophy/COURSES/PHIL218/NATURE. HTM 6 Apr 2004. â€Å"Transcendentalism. † The Cambridge History of American Literature. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1917. 326 – 348.

Ancient Roman History Salutatio

Salutatio is a Latin word from which the word salutation stems from. A salutation is a common greeting utilized throughout the world. It is commonly used to express acknowledgment of ones arrival or departure. Salutations are utilized in numerous cultures throughout the world. In Ancient Rome, a Salutatio was the formal morning greeting of the Roman patron by his clients. The Morning Ritual The salutatio took place every morning in the Roman Republic. It was considered to be one of the central aspects of the start of the day. The morning ritual was reiterated daily throughout the Republic and Empire, and was a fundamental part of Roman interactions between citizens of varying status. It was used as a sign of respect from the patrons to the client. The salutatio only went one way, as the clients greeted the patron, but the patron would not greet the clients back in return. Much of the traditional scholarship on the salutatio in Ancient Rome has interpreted the relationship between the salutatory and salutatee essentially as a system of social acquiescence. In this system, the salutatee was able to accrue significant social esteem, and the salutator was merely a humble client or social inferior. Ancient Roman Social Structure In Ancient Roman culture, Romans could be either patrons or clients. At the time, this social stratification proved mutually beneficial. The number of clients and sometimes the status of clients conferred prestige on the patron. The client owed his vote to the patron. The patron protected the client and his family, gave legal advice, and helped the clients financially or in other ways. A patron could have a patron of his own; therefore, a client, could have his own clients, but when two high status Romans had a relationship of mutual benefit, they were likely to choose the label amicus (friend) to describe the relationship since amicus did not imply stratification. When slaves were manumitted, the liberti (freedmen) automatically became clients of their former owners and were obligated to work for them in some capacity. There was also patronage in the arts where a patron provided the wherewithal to allow the artist to create in comfort. The work of art or book would be dedicated to the patron. Client King is typically used of non-Roman rulers who enjoyed Roman patronage, but were not treated as equals. Romans called such rulers rex sociusque et amicus king, ally, and friend when the Senate formally recognized them. Braund emphasizes that there is little authority for the actual term client king. Client kings did not have to pay taxes, but they were expected to provide military manpower. The client kings expected Rome to help them defend their territories. Sometimes client kings bequeathed their territory to Rome.